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Winzenz Mario De Govia. Kevin Reinhart. Knight Professor Emeritus. Lasser Institute. Professor Buckley. The renowned psychologist Albert Bandura s theory is that those with high self-efficacy expectancies the belief that one can achieve what one sets out to do are healthier, more effective and generally more successful than those with low self-efficacy expectancies.

The author begins with a discussion of theory and method and then examines how belief in one s abilities affects development, mental functioning and health, with examples from the areas of psychopathology, athletics, business and international issues. The book is ideal for upper-level courses in social, developmental, clinical or organisational psychology as well as business, education, counselling and political science.

Albert Bandura s highly anticipated examination of his vastly influential work on self-efficacy is now available. The result of over 20 years of research by this renowned psychologist, the book articulates comprehensively Bandura s theory that believing one can achieve what one sets out to do results in a. Home [P. Fubini DVM [P. Sterk [P. Alberts [P. Matthews [P. Hillier [P. Eckler [P. Atkinson [P. Nuttall [P. DiNardo [P. Henrich [P. Schoenfield [P. Hibbeler [P. But you can stop them from building nests in your hair" - Chinese proverb o Intrusive cognitions Frequency Intensity Acceptability Controllability It is not the frequency that engenders their effects, but perceived controllability o Churchill measure of thought management Perceived self-efficacy to divert attention from unwanted thoughts To tolerate them and reconstrue them in benign ways It is not the sheer frequency of intrusive thoughts but the perceived inefficacy to turn them off that is the major source of distress o Different strategies of thought control Suppression - does not work because the negation of a thought contains the thought "quit thinking giraffe" - Efforts of thought control are more likely to backfire under stressful conditions Self-distractions by concentrating on other trains of thought can be more effective than suppression -This method instates the thoughts one needs Postponement of worrying give a set time to worry each day.

This works Proactive attention to wanted thoughts People enlist environmental aids Situational changes and environmental changes Absorption in novels, movies, or television Immersion in engrossing activities Affective Control Efficacy o Beneficial perspectives also provide further means for dealing with stressors Physical exercise Recreational activities Enjoyable avocational pursuits Humor tempers the sting of adversity Much human distress is self-inflicted by personal demands for accomplishment that are exceedingly difficult to fulfill.

Relaxing stringent self-imposed demands relieves stress Perceived Self-Inefficacy and Depression o The inability to influence events and social conditions that significantly affect ones life can give rise to feelings of futility as well as despondency and anxiety Anxiety - when people perceive themselves ill equipped to handle potentially injurious events Sadness and depression - when people have low perceived self-efficacy to gain valued outcomes.

Hopelessness about the future Failures or hardships Lack or loss of emotional relationships Cyclical - depressed people create depressing environments by their behavior Inefficacy and Biased Cognitive Processing of Experiences o A weak sense of perceived self-efficacy operates on the cognitive source of depression in several ways The processing of positive and negative experiences Dwell on failures rather than savoring their successes Influence causal explanations of performance attainments Depressed persons are not especially charitable with themselves Use unfavorable social comparisons Depression through Inefficacy for Unfulfilled Aspirations o A sure way of nurturing self-inefficacy is by adopting lofty or vague goals for gaining self-worth Depression through Inefficacious Thought Control SELECTION PROCESSES People are partly the products of their environments o By selecting their environments, people can have a hand in what they become o Any factor that influences choice of behavior can affect the direction of personal development Choices made during formative periods of life carry special weight because they initiate concatenating experiences that rete the prerequisites for desired futures.

Changing aspirations, time perspectives, and social arrangements over the course of the life span alter how people structure, regulate, and evaluate their lives in the lifelong journey" Changes with age do not represent lock-step stages through which everyone must pass Adolescence is not necessarily a period of adaptational turbulence The middle years are not necessarily the period of a midlife crisis There are many pathways through life o Affected by age, social events, status, family, education o Some things are predictable, some are not "Fate is the arbiter of half.

The self must be socially constructed through transactional experiences with the environment" Impact of Early Mastery Experiences on Social and Cognitive Development Enabling influences during infancy build a sense of agency conducive to cognitive development o Intensive preschool programs that provide rich mastery experiences permanently raise the level and academic attainments of children from economically disadvantaged and undereducated families o High risk children without such enablement programs end up functioning at retarded or borderline levels and tend to repeat grades.

Surmounting Childhood Adversities Resilience in the face of things like, poverty, divorce, physical abuse, parental alcoholism, mental disorders is reflected in positive developmental outcomes in the face of severe adversity.

There are a number of school practices that tend to convert instructional experiences into educational inefficacy o Lock step instruction that loses children who can't keep up o Ability grouping o Socially competitive grading o Recurring difficulties encountered with low achieving students erode teachers sense of instructional efficacy o Self-appraisals of less able students suffer most when the whole group studies the same material and teachers make frequent comparative evaluations o Cooperative structures tend to promote higher performance attainments than do competitive ones "Inefficacy feeds on itself" Students who develop strong beliefs in their personal efficacy are well-equipped to educate themselves when they have to rely on their own initiative" Lifelong health habits are formed during childhood and adolescence o Eating patterns o Recreational skills for fitness.

This is best achieved through guided mastery experiences o Development of resilient self-efficacy requires some experience in matering difficulties through perseverant effort o Success in managing difficulties develops a strong belief in ones capabilities The prototypical self-regulatory program developed by Gilchrist and Schunke has been extended to the prevention and reduction of adolescent drug abuse o Informs adolescents about drugs o Provides them with interpersonal skills for managing pressures o Lowers drug use o Fosters self-conception as a non-user SELF-EFFICACY CONCERNS OF ADULTHOOD "Young adulthood is a period when people have to learn to manage many new social demands arising from lasting partnerships, marital relationships, parenthood, entry into vocational career, and managing financial resources" There are a number of ways in which efficacy beliefs contribute to career development and success in vocational pursuit.

Experienced more positive emotional well being Closer attachment to their babies Better adjustment to parenting Less conflict Better marital relationship during the toddlership o Parental efficacy is taxed when Children suffer health problems Children are especially temperamental There is no social support building parenting efficacy can help eliminate child behavioral problems Nontraditional lifestyles are becoming more common o Women elect to remain single o Marry but remain childless o Live with a partner without marrying o "Family income, heaviness of occupational workload, and division of childcare responsibility has no direct effect on women's well being or emotional strain over the dual roles.

These factors operated through their effects on perceived selfefficacy" Psychosocial processes through which economic hardships alter parents' perceived efficacy that, in turn, alters how they raise their children. Three areas for child management skills Exercise parental efficacy to promote children's competencies Parental efficacy to exercise control over children's high-risk behaviors Active parental involvement in beneficial community organizations "Efficacious parents link to subcommunities which provide models for their children, social networks, and compensate for meager neighborhood resources and dangerous aspects Midlife Changes "By the middle years, people settle into established lifestyles that stabilize their sense of efficacy in major areas of functioning" Some do not.

Memory lapses can be construed differently; how one views them can have varied effects on the quality of functioning o Controllable skill - confidence in ability to improve it Efficacious outlook accompanies low depression Actually facilitates memory performance Does a better job of remembering things Predicts degree of improvement in memory functioning o Shrinking biological capacity Harbor doubts suffer depression Believe they have limited memory capacity Can do little to affect memory capacity The more that individuals believe this, the poorer use they make of their cognitive capabilities o Efficacy beliefs can enhance memory performance by motivating deeper levels of cognitive processing of experiences.

These cognitive memory aids may include: Organizational strategies Mental rehearsal Elaborative and associative coding Physical and Health Functioning Declines in stamina and functioning health status are attributed all too often to biological aging when in fact some of the decline in physical stamina reflects decrements in beliefs of physical efficacy. Selective integration of multifaceted efficacy information multiple experiences using different skills weighing heavily the domains of functioning at which they excel, and minimize those at which they consider of lesser importance Selective Optimization and compensation simplifying activities pacing activities restructuring the physical environment to make it more manageable adopt new roles.

Societies pay dearly for the educational neglect of their youth o School failure foreshadows delinquency o Substance abuse o Teenage pregnancy o Intellectually deficient youth become disadvantages adults Children can learn a lot from computers, but they need human teachers to help build their sense of efficacy, to cultivate aspirations, to find meaning and direction in their pursuits. Children with the same level of cognitive skill development differ in their intellectual performance depending on the strength of their perceived self-efficacy" Enlist sustained involvement needed to build competence select challenges that match capabilities feedback from progress personally challenging goals the satisfaction derived from goal attainment builds intrinsic interest short term goals are better Do extrinsic incentives decrease interest?

It is a complex question. Self-directed mastery experiences are arranged too strengthen and generalize personal efficacy Self-regulatory capabilities and higher efficacy are the ultimate goal A focus of social cognitive theory is the development of personal agency Self-Efficacy in Self-Regulated Cognitive Development As students progress in their education, they are expected to become more self-directed in their learning - "this requires bringing self-influence to bear on every aspect of learning experiences" Incorporates a large set of self-regulatory mechanisms governing cognitive functioning Encompasses social and motivational skills as well as cognitive ones o Three main features [mechanisms] of motivation Selection Activation Sustained direction of behavior toward certain goals o Motivational facet of self directed learning includes Self-monitoring Self-efficacy appraisal Personal goal setting Outcome expectations Affective self-reactions o Barry Zimmerman's expanded view of academic self-regulation people must develop skills to regulate motivational affective social determinants of intellectual functioning Students must learn to select and structure the environmental settings study strategies mobilize ans sustain motivation for academic pursuits over outside distractions such as play and television.

Perceived Self-Efficacy and Academic Anxiety There is a lot to be anxious about in scholastic life Students who are inefficacious o don't concentrate on mastery, but on the difficulty of the task o focus on personal inadequacies o ruminate about past failures o worry about the consequences of failing o think themselves into emotional distress and faulty performances The impact of past performances in math is mediated entirely through their impact on effect on beliefs of personal efficacy The full impact of perceived self-efficacy on academic anxiety is best revealed by assessing belief in one's efficacy to o Fulfill academic demands o Exercise control over intrusive thinking o Ameliorate experienced distress o Regulate one's study activities Impact of Cognitive Self-Efficacy on Developmental Trajectories Children's intellectual development cannot be isolated from the social relations within which it is imbedded or from its interpersonal effects.

They devote more class time to instructional activities Provide guidance more to students who need it. Praise their academic accomplishments more. Spend more time on non-academic pastime Readily give up on students if they do not get quick results Criticize students for their failure. Teachers' beliefs in their efficacy affect their general orientation toward educational processes as well as instructional activities Beliefs about efficacy predicted student achievement. Therefore, educational development through efficacy enhancement must address the social and organizational structure of educational systems.

Parents: Prepare children for school Place a value on education Set beliefs about scholastic abilities Set standards of excellence Establish regular homework habits Help with schoolwork at home Encourage language development Keep track of academic progress Reward efforts Support school related functions Assist with school activities Parental involvement increased the likelihood of high academic tracks Supplement education with after school programs informal social networks spawn a lot of learning outside school Teacher Determines level of parental participation by being more inviting Stronger teachers instructional efficacy, the more parents seek contact with them Family involvement is critical An effective efficacy building program would include videotaped modeling of family tutoring skills as well as guided practice Schools o Learning activities promote a sense of personal capability and scholastic accomplishment.

Teachers collective efficacy varies across grade levels and subjects o Low efficacy to promote learning at the entry level o Middle grades teachers express stronger belief o In succeeding grades, teachers view their schools as declining in instructional efficacy o Teachers judge themselves more efficacious to teach language skills that mathematical skills Disadvantaged schools o When no special effort is made, SES and racial composition account for much of the variance between schools in collective efficacy and achievement o There are not many schools of low SES with lofty collective efficacy and superior achievements Causal influences are bidirectional Reciprocal causation o Teachers determine partly what their students learn o A number of factors in the school environment contribute to teachers beliefs Models for Enhanced Education of Disadvantaged Youth Our schools are not serving disadvantaged youths well.

Negative emotions male personal failure more salient Public health messages that elicit positive emotions make people feel more efficacious and optimistic Health communications should emphasize that success requires perseverant effort. Conceptual Models of Health Behavior see chart Health belief model o Preventive health efforts are influenced by four factors Perceived threats - provide motivation Benefits - influence course of action to take Barriers - influence course of action to take Cues to action - experience and social prompts Protections motivation o Includes physical threat, adds to efficacy component Response efficacy - whether a given course of action results in a given attainment "We are now in the age of cafeteria style theorizing in which constructs are plucked from divergent theories and strung together in various combinations as alternative conceptual schemes in the name of theoretical integration" p.

Achievement of Personal Change Effective self-regulation is not achieved through an act of will. It requires the development of self-regulatory skills.

Persuasion - verbal persuasions - construing a slip as an occasion for improvement supplants self-debilitating thoughts with constructive problem solving Long-term success in altering and maintaining health habits depends on self-regulatory skills. Ecological Perspective on Efficacious Self-Regulation p. Each of the three classes of interactants - environmental factors, self-system, behavioral competencies - contribute to the long-term control of substance abuse.

Include little triangle here o Social support and guidance during difficult times bolster the maintenance of abstinence o Environmental orientated approaches create social structures that enable people to exert satisfying proactive control over their family, occupational, and recreational lives.

Dynamics of Self-Regulation p. They are the products of reciprocal interplay of personal and social influences o Health of a nation is a social matter o Personal beliefs in their collective efficacy to accomplish social change play a key role in health policy o Health field has sound policies but lacks the collective efficacy to realize them Cigarette smoking is the single most preventable cause of death o Kills more than , people a year o More people die annually from smoking than from Alcohol Heroine Cocaine AIDS Suicide Homicide Auto accidents Fires Combined o children take up smoking daily one-third will die of tobacco related disease Unless people take up habits as youngsters, they rarely become smokers during adulthood Scope of Prognostic Schemas Factors to include in prognosis schemes.

Social cognitive theory prescribes mastery experience as the principal vehicle of personal change o Therapists must create enabling environmental conditions so that. Feared activities are first modeled to show people how to cope effectively with threats Modeling aids that cultivate competencies are especially important Modeling alone produces some heightening of perceived self-efficacy o Difficult or intimidating tasks are broken down into subtasks of readily mastered steps At any given point people are asked to do what is in their capabilities with extra effort and perseverance o Example: driving phobics Start with brief trips on secluded streets, then advance to longer drives on more active routes, and culminate with lengthy drives on the freeway if phobics fail, they are quick to ascribe their difficulty to inherent capability.

The therapist must then ascribe the difficulty to the size of the task demand. Treatments should build resilience reflected in the ability to bounce back from adverse experiences A resilient sense of efficacy is not created by a few successes Mastering increasingly tougher challenges Independent personal accomplishments build resilience Distinguishing between mechanisms and modes of change There is a common misconception that the modality of treatment must match the o modality of dysfunction o behavioral dysfunctions require action oriented treatment o emotional distresses require emotive oriented thinking o faulty thinking requires a cognitively oriented treatment o "In fact, powerful experiences produce changes in all modalities of functioning behavioral, cognitive, and affective" p.

Next step: Understanding the restructuring of efficacy-beliefs Cognitive behavior therapy o Human problems and distresses arise from faulty thinking o Treatments seek to eradicate phobic dysfunctions by altering faulty modes of thinking o "To christen thought as verbal behavior is to stretch the definition of behavior to the point where it ceases to have any meaning.

One can have thoughts without words" Depression is caused by many different things, and, thus, no one treatment can effectively mitigate its effects.

Turn ordinary mistakes and setbacks into catastrophes Personalize negative happenings that have little or nothing to do with them Think dichotomously astute or stupid, courageous or cowardly Become skilled at discounting their successes and positives o Harsh standards of self-evaluation give rise to chronic depression, feelings of worthlessness, and lack of purposefulness e.

Ernest Hemingway Unattainable demands Demeaned his own accomplishments o Dysfunctional self-evaluation system. Perceived self-efficacy to exercise control over eating habits encompasses a variety of aspects o Perceived self-efficacy to resist overeating when Experiencing negative emotions Social pressures to eat Engaging in enjoyable activities When high calorie foods are available]. The media must be sensitized to the fact that the svelte models of beauty they propagate create severe pressures on young women to try to conform to this ideal of femininity ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE Studies of the life course of alcohol abuse reveal that it develops gradually over a long period of social drinking rather than abruptly as the disease model would lead one to believe In the biopsychosocial interactional model o Alcoholism is a multidetermined behavior pattern that varies across individuals in severity, patterns of causal influence, and amenability to personal control.

Treatment strategies must be tailored to the particular constellation of determinants operating in any given case. Whatever treatment is selected, it must address the client's sense of efficacy to control their drinking and their outcome expectations Genetic factors may operate indirectly thorough their influence on temperamental personality characteristics that predispose some youngsters to drinking as well as other problem behaviors Social models are powerful sharers of alcohol consumption Televised modeling of drinking increase pro-drinking attitudes Societies where alcoholic beverages are used as a food and not a drug are less plagued with drinking problems Self-Regulatory Efficacy in Alcohol Abuse p.

People base their actions more on what they believe than on what is objectively the case. I just concentrate on the next pitch" o "It is me and the shot. Efficacious Adaptability people experience a high rate of change across vocations over the ful course of their working lives o Technological change is fast o Slow changers can become big losers People must take charge of their own self-development Any insecurities people have about their learning capabilities are reacted when they have to learn new ways of thinking and doing things Perceived self-inefficacy contributes to occupations transition problems o There are three 3 types of changes that require different forms of efficacy Reactive efficacy requires close monitoring of trends in the marketplace Efficacy to create incremental improvements in existing products and services Innovative efficacy is when knowledge is synthesized into new ways of thinking and doing things.

I never quit until I get what I want. The third process of creativity is serendipity o It gives birth, from time to time, to innovations o New products and major industries often spring from happenstance o The Kellogg brothers made cereal because they neglected to return to the over on time. Instead of biscuits, they had dried crust that became flakes and gave rise to the cereal industry o Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin by neglecting to discard old culture dishes, thus giving the penicillin mold sufficient time to develop.

The collective belief centers on the groups operative capabilities Interactive dynamics create an emergent property that is more than the sum of its individual attributes. The stronger the staffs' shared belief in their instructional efficacy, the better the school performed academically Political Efficacy Perceived political efficacy involve peoples beliefs that they can influence the political system o Personal efficacy needed to produce results by effort and use of capabilities.

Joint Impact of Efficacy and System Trust on Political Activism People who believe that they can help to achieve desired futures will act on that belief regardless of whether they hold the political system in high or low regard. Those who are active within the political system believe they can influence it Research on political efficacy must therefore assess not only a multi faceted efficacy belief system, but also different forms of political activism at different levels of government systems.

Development of Political and System Trust Beliefs that one can influence the government start early in life. Media Use for Policy Initiatives The responsiveness of the media to the public interest will depend partly on the strength of the public voice. Therefore a good part of media advocacy is devoted to building coalitions and teaching community groups how to promote their policy initiative through a variety of media outlets.

Entertainment Media in Social Change Burgeoning population growth is by far the most urgent global problem o Produces environmental degradation o Global ecosystem cannot sustain the high consumption. Self-efficacy theory approaches the issue of inequitable distribution of benefits in terms of creating equitable opportunity to make use of innovations o Opportunities ought to be expanded to all members o The structuring of social agencies to endure access to opportunities should be considered as much a part of the innovation as the technology itself Communications Innovations and Social Diffusion of Ideas and Social Practices Social cognitive theory analyzes social diffusion of ideas, values, and social practices in terms of 3 three constituent processes and the psychosocial factors that govern them o Acquisition of knowledge Symbolic modeling by print media, radio and television Innovations that are difficult to understand are given less consideration Informal personal channels.

More likely to learn new ideas and practices from contact with different casual acquaintances than from the same, close circles. People with many social ties are more apt to adopt innovation Different social networks transmit differing innovations and news. The major challenge to leadership is to forge a national sense of self-efficacy to take advantage of globalization while minimizing the price to local cultures o Modern life is increasingly regulated by complex physical technologies that most people neither understand nor believe they can do much to influence o The social machinery of society is no less challenging o Social fragmentation along racial, religious and ethnic lines o Advanced telecommunications are spreading idea, values, and styles of behavior transnationally at an unprecedented rate Factional Efficacy and Gridlocking of Social Initiatives "Clearly there exists a paradox to be explained.

The rise of narrow-interest groups flexing their factional efficacy does not jibe well with the diagnosis of growing public apathy and feelings of helplessness" Our own collective efficacy will, in turn, shape how future generations live their lives. Open navigation menu. Close suggestions Search Search. User Settings. Skip carousel. Carousel Previous. Carousel Next. What is Scribd? Explore Ebooks. Bestsellers Editors' Picks All Ebooks.

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Is this content inappropriate? Report this Document. Description: psychology. Flag for inappropriate content. Download now. Jump to Page. Search inside document. Rather, people who judge themselves poor swimmers will visualize themselves drowning if they jump in deep water" Integrations rules may vary o Combine efficacy factors additively - the more indicants there are, the stronger the belief of personal capability o Relative weighting rule in which some factors are weighted more heavily than others o Multiplicative combinations rule in which the conjoint impact of factors on efficacy beliefs is greater than simply their additive effect o Configurally - particular factor is given different weight depending on other available sources of efficacy information CHAPTER 4 - MEDIATING PROCESSES Self-efficacy beliefs produce their effects through cognitive, motivational, affective, and selective processes.

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People's level of motivation, affective states, and actions are based more on what they believe than on what is objectively true. Efficacy beliefs influence: o courses of action o effort o perseverance in the face of obstacles and failures o resilience to adversity o whether thought patterns are self-hindering or self-aiding o stress and depression in taxing situations o level of accomplishment realized The Nature of Human Agency 3 People can exercise influence over what they do.

Agency refers to acts done intentionally. Thought processes are emergent brain activities that are not ontologically reducible. Human Agency in Triadic Reciprocal Causation 5 Personal factors, behavior, and environmental events interact and influence each other bidirectionally. Agency works within a sociostructural influence.

Determinism and the Exercise of Self-Influence 7 Because behavior is co-determined by many factors operating interactively, given events produce effects probabilistically, not inevitably.

Thus, some measure of freedom is possible through o Alternatives we consider. Individuals behave differently in an efficacious as opposed to an inefficacious frame of mind. Nevertheless, they remain agents of thoughts, effort, and actions. Related Views of Personal Efficacy 10 Self-Concept o Composite view of oneself formed through experience and feedback from others. Effectance Motivation. Proxy Control o In this socially mediated mode of control, people try to get those who wield influence and power to act on their behalf to effect the changes they desire.

Efficacious people do not place their fate in the hands of others. Type A personalities master task demands impatiently and with time urgency. Inadvertent Relinquishment of Control o Many factors operate in everyday life to undermine efficaciuos use of the knowledge and skills that people possess.

Outcome Expectancy Theories o According to expectancy-valence theories, performance is jointly influenced by the expectancy that behaving in a particular way will lead to a given outcome and the desirability of that outcome.

Performance is an accomplishment. Outcomes follow from performances. Possible Selves. These possible selves are constructed from personal experiences, actual and symbolic models, sociocultural influences that provide a framework to interpret experience influence how we think about potential and options guide action motivate us toward selected goals 25 positive selves guide and motivate while unwanted selves block action and prompt avoidance Control Beliefs o A control event consists of an agent using certain means to give rise to outcomes.

Means do not operate on outcomes directly, rather they give rise to certain performances then produce outcomes Primary versus Secondary Control 29 o Primary control - efforts to change existing realities. Adapting to existing realities. Ameliorating distress over realities. Assimilation - people interpret reality in ways that fit their beliefs.

Accommodation - change beliefs to fit reality. Self-Efficacy in Individualistic and Collectivistitic Social Systems 31 o Global classifications mask diversity within systems. Individualistic cultures differ. Collectivistic systems differ.

East Asian cultures founded on Buddhism or Confucianism have particular values, meanings, symbols Within the United States New England individualism is different from the Californian version. Cultural orientations must be treated as multifaceted dynamic influences in exploring how efficacy beliefs affect functioning.

Group achievements and social change are rooted in self-efficacy In collective systems, people work together to produce benefits they seek Inveterate self-doubters are not easily organized into a collectively efficacious force Enablement versus Moralization 33 o "Self-efficacy is concerned with human enablement, not with moral judgments" The Self-Efficacy Component of Social Cognitive Theory 34 o Self-efficacy works in concert with other determinants within social cognitive theory to govern human thought, motivation, and action.

Cognitive guidance is especially influential in the early and intermediate phases of skill development. Behavior becomes routinized James's habit? Execution can be regulated by lower level sensory motor systems. Tending to mechanics of what one is doing after proficiency is achieved is likely to disrupt performance. Partial disengagement of thought from proficient action has considerable functional value. When situations change, personal efficacy is promptly reappraised as the guide for action.

As long as people believe in their ability, they act habitually. Routinization is advantageous when the skills that have been acquired are optimal ones. Routinization is self-limiting when people settle for low level pursuits on the basis of self-doubts and no longer reappraise their capabilities. Can you shift that automatic transmission? Can you turn a steering wheel? Can you accelerate and stop? Can you blow a horn? Rather, ask about the generative capability to maneuver and automobile in various situations: Can you maneuver through congested city traffic?

Can you maneuver around vehicles on crowded expressways Can you drive down narrow twisting mountain roads? Self-regulatory efficacy -- how well subskills are enlisted, orchestrated, and sustained -is also an important contributor to the belief in attainment efficacy Individuals as Active Producers rather than Passive Foretellers of Performance 38 Performances do not happen, we bring them about.

People contribute to, not merely predict their performance. People who doubt their capabilities o shy away from difficult tasks. People with strong belief in capabilities o approach difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered not threats to ve avoided. The Self-efficacy Approach to Personal Causation 38 Specificity in constructing items not omnibus, global, decontextualized items "Omnibus measures create problems of predictive relevance as well as obscurity about what is being assessed" 40 Multi Dimensionality of Self-efficacy Belief Systems 42 Measuring self-efficacy o "Measures of personal efficacy must be tailored to domains of functioning and represent gradations of task demands" Under differing levels of task demands within an activity domain.

Under differing situational circumstances. Structure of Self-Efficacy Scales 42 "Self-efficacy scales should measure people's beliefs in their abilities to fulfill different levels of task demands within the psychological domain selected for study.

Including a wide range of task demands identifies the upper limits of people's beliefs as well as gradations of strength of perceived self-efficacy below that point" Efficacy beliefs differ in level, generality, and strength.

The nature of the challenges against which personal efficacy can be judged vary by Level of ingenuity Exertion Accuracy Productivity Threat Self-regulation required "With self-regulation, the issue is not whether one can do them occasionally but whether one has the efficacy to get oneself to do them regularly in the face of varied dissuading conditions" Preliminary inquiry to construct scales: People are asked to describe things that make it hard for them to perform the required activities regularly.

Sufficient impediments and challenges should be built into efficacy items to avoid ceiling effects. Measuring strength of self-efficacy beliefs: Can do rather than will do items point scale intervals of 10 cannot do 50 moderately certain certain can do. In the case of self-regulatory efficacy, people judge their assurance that they can perform the activity regularly over designated periods of time Effects of Self-Assessment 46 "Numerous tests for reactive effects of self-assessment show that people's affective reactions and performance attainments are the same regardless of whether they do or do not make prior efficacy judgements" Omnibus versus Domain-Linked Measures 47 "The evidence is relatively consistent in showing that perceived self-efficacy is a good predictor, whereas locus of control is either a weak predictor or is non-predictive" Efficacy beliefs predict: o Academic performance o Proneness to anxiety o Pain tolerance o Metabolic control in diabetes o Political participation Three levels of generality of assessment: 49 o The most specific level measures perceived self-efficacy for a particular performance under a specific set of conditions o The intermediate level measures perceived self-efficacy for a class of performances within the same activity domain under a class of conditions sharing common properties.

Discriminative Generalization of Self-Appraisal 50 "Efficacy beliefs are structured by experience and reflective thought rather than being simply a disjoined collection of highly specific self-beliefs" Five processes through which mastery experiences can produce some generality in personal efficacy o Similar subskills Thus, one ought to focus on the common features when tackling a new activity o Co-development o Self-regulatory skills Diagnosing task demands Constructing and evaluating alternative courses of action Setting proximal goals to guide one's efforts Creating self incentives to sustain engagement and manage stress and debilitating intrusive thoughts o Generalizable coping skills Self-protective skills Weight loss Stress management o Generality is achieved by structuring activities and highlighting commonalities The framing creates self-efficacy links between activities "Powerful mastery experiences that provide striking testimony to one's capacity to effect personal change can also produce a transformational restructuring of efficacy beliefs that is manifested across diverse realms of functioning, e.

However, avoid a Holy Grail of Generality. Dual Causal Linkage 54 o "In the case of the efficacy mediator, people can report their beliefs. This observable indicant enables us to understand the origin and function of efficacy beliefs" The optimal cutoff criterion must be determined empirically for different domains of functioning Because efficacy strength incorporates efficacy level as well as gradations of certainty above any threshold value, efficacy strength is generally a more sensitive and informative measure than efficacy level.

There are conditions where the micro-level congruence procedure is unsuitable for verifying the effects of efficacy beliefs 55 In some instances, the modality through which efficacy is exercised differs from modality in which effects are manifested Efficacy judgement is made about an intermediary activity that, in due time, produces a result of a different sort Self-efficacy is judged for different performance attainments, and the effect is level of motivation o The link between perceived self-efficacy and subsequent performance attainments is verified by macro level relations that correlate aggregated selfefficacy beliefs with aggregate academic performance.

Diverse Tests of Causality 56 o Perceived self-efficacy is raised to different preselected levels, and its effects on behaviors are measured. Then perceived efficacy was raised to higher levels and behavior was measured again at the new level. Results: higher levels of perceived self-efficacy were accompanied by higher performance attainments 56 o Introducing trivial factors that do not affect competence but do affect selfefficacy Results: efficacy influenced performance by influencing motivation.

Results: when people's coping efficacy is strengthened, they approach situations more assured and make better use of the skills that they have. Limited Scope of Self-efficacy Assessment 61 "Most behavior has multiple determinants and self-efficacy theory is often tested in a factor that exerts only partial influence over the behavior of interest" Thus, we should be cautious about interpreting the explained variance in performance by perceived self-efficacy in any given study as its maximum contribution" Mismatch Between Self-Efficacy and the Performance Domains 63 "Efficacy beliefs must be measured closely with the performance domain to be predictive Attainment efficacy is more predictive than means efficacy" Faulty Assessments of Self-Efficacy or Performance 63 In many spheres of functioning, people know full well how to perform the needed behavior.

Here the relevant efficacy beliefs concern self-regulatory capabilities - can people get themselves to stick with the behavior given the many dissuading conditions they will encounter In familiar activities that must be performed regularly to achieve desired results, it is perceived self-regulatory efficacy, rather than perceived efficacy for the activity per se, that is most relevant 64 Relation of efficacy beliefs to performance can be reduced by faulty assessment: o Complex patterns of behavior do not lend themselves to assessment o Global judgements mask the diversity of behavior "people do not behave globally" 64 o.

Temporal Disparities 67 Time between assessment of efficacy and performance is important. James Joyce's The Dubliners was rejected by 22 publishers.

Gertrude Stein submitted poems to editors for 20 years before one was finally accepted. Fifteen publishers rejected a manuscript by e. A Paris art dealer refused Picasso shelter when he asked if he could bring his art in from out of the rain. Van Gogh sold only one painting in his life.

Stravinsky was run out of town by an enraged audience after the first performance of the Rites of Spring. Frank Lloyd Wright was one of the more widely rejected architects for much of his career.

Hollywood initially rejected Fred Astaire as "a balding, skinny actor who can dance a little. Scientists often reject theories that are ahead of their time. To do so is self-limiting People who are socially anxious are often just as socially skilled as the more sociable ones. But socially active people judge themselves much more adept than they really are Consummate survivors have a Phoenix-like ability to bounce back from setbacks